Gaulish language

Gaulish is an ancient Celtic language that was spoken in parts of Europe as late as the Roman period. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language spoken by the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul (modern France). In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe ("Noric"), parts of the Balkans, and Asia Minor ("Galatian"), which are thought to have been closely related.^[2][3] The more divergent Lepontic Celtic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish.^[4][5]

Together with Lepontic and the Celtiberian language spoken in the Iberian peninsula, Gaulish forms the geographic group of Continental Celtic languages. Due to their sparse attestation, the precise linguistic relationships among them, as well as between them and the modern Insular Celtic languages, are uncertain and are a matter of ongoing debate.

Gaulish is found in about 800 inscriptions consisting of dedications, funeral monuments, graffiti, magical-religious texts, coin inscriptions and other similar, often fragmentary records. Gaulish texts were first written in the Greek alphabet in southern France, and in a variety of the Old Italic script in northern Italy. After the Roman conquest of these regions, writing shifted to the use of the Latin alphabet.^[6]

Gaulish was supplanted by Vulgar Latin^[7] and various Germanic languages from around the 5th century AD onwards.

Classification

It is estimated that during the Bronze Age, Proto-Celtic started fragmenting into distinct languages, including Celtiberian and Gaulish.^[8] As a result of the expansion of Celtic tribes during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, closely related varieties of Celtic came to be spoken in a vast arc extending from present-day Britain and France through the Alpine region and Pannonia in central Europe, and into parts of the Balkans and Asia minor. Their precise linguistic relationships are uncertain because of the fragmentary nature of the evidence.

The Gaulish varieties of central and eastern Europe and of Asia Minor (known as Noric and Galatian respectively) are barely attested, but from what little is known of them it appears that they were still quite similar to those of Gaul and can be considered dialects of a single language.^[2] Among those regions where substantial inscriptional evidence exists, three varieties are usually distinguished.

• Lepontic, attested from a small area on the southern slopes of the Alps, around the present-day Swiss town of Lugano, is the oldest Celtic language to have been written, with inscriptions in a variant of the Old Italic ("Etruscan") script appearing around c.600 BC. It has been described either as an "early dialect of an outlying form of Gaulish", or else as a separate Continental Celtic language.^[9]

• Attestations of Gaulish proper in present-day France are known as "Transalpine Gaulish". Its written record begins in the third century BC with inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, found mainly in the Rhone area of southern France (where Greek cultural influence was present via the colony of Massilia, founded c. 600 BC). After the Roman conquest of Gaul (58-50 BC), the writing of Gaulish shifted to the Latin alphabet.

• Finally, there are a small number of inscriptions from the second and first centuries B.C. in Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), which share the same archaic alphabet as the Lepontic inscriptions but are found outside the Lepontic area proper. As they were written after the time of the Gaulish conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, they are usually identified as "Cisalpine Gaulish". They share some linguistic features both with Lepontic and with Transalpine Gaulish; for instance, both Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish simplify the consonant clusters -nd- and -χs- to -nn- and -ss- respectively, while both Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaulish replace inherited word-final -m with -n.^[10] Scholars have debated to what extent the distinctive features of Lepontic reflect merely its earlier origin or a genuine genealogical split, and to what extent Cisalpine Gaulish should be seen as a continuation of Lepontic or an independent offshoot of mainstream Transalpine Gaulish.

The relationship between Gaulish and the other Celtic languages is also subject to debate. Most scholars today agree that Celtiberian was the first to branch off from the remaining Celtic languages.^[11] Gaulish, situated in the centre of the Celtic language area, shares with the neighbouring Brythonic of Great Britain the change of the Indo-European labio-velar consonant /kʷ/ > /p/, whereas both Celtiberian in the south and Goidelic in Ireland retain /kʷ/. Taking this as the primary genealogical isogloss, some scholars see the Celtic languages to be divided into a "q-Celtic" and a "p-Celtic" group, in which the p-Celtic languages Gaulish and Brythonic form a common "Gallo-Brittonic" branch. Other scholars place more emphasis on shared innovations between Brythonic and Goidelic, and group these together as an Insular Celtic branch. Sims-Williams (2007) discusses a composite model, in which the Continental and Insular varieties are seen as part of a dialect continuum, with genealogical splits and areal innovations intersecting.^[12]

External evidence

Early period

At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek and Latin writers of antiquity. The word "Gaulish" (gallicum) as a language term is first explicitly used by Virgil (70 BC - 19 BC) in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet.^[13] Julius Caesar reported in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico of 58 BC that the Celts/Gauls and their language are separated from their Aquitanian and Belgic neighbours by the rivers Garonne and Seine/Marne, respectively.^[14] Caesar relates that census accounts written in the Greek alphabet were found among the Helvetii.^[15] He also notes that as of 53 BC the Gaulish druids used the Greek alphabet for private and public transactions, with the important exception of druidic doctrines, which could only be memorised and were not allowed to be written down.^[16] According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, nearly three quarters of Gaulish inscriptions (disregarding coins) are in the Greek alphabet. Later inscriptions dating to Roman Gaul are mostly in the Latin alphabet and have been found principally in central France.^[17]

Roman period

Latin was quickly adopted by the Gaulish aristocracy after the Roman conquest to maintain their elite power and influence,^[18] trilingualism in southern Gaul being noted as early as the 1st century BC.^[19]

Early references to Gaulish in Gaul tend to be made in the context of problems with Greek or Latin fluency until around AD 400, whereas after c. AD 450, Gaulish begins to be mentioned in contexts where Latin has replaced "Gaulish" or "Celtic" (whatever the authors meant by those terms). For Galatia (Asia Minor), there is no source explicitly indicating a 5th-century language replacement:

• During the last quarter of the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus, bishop of Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), apologises for his inadequate (Greek) language, being "resident among the Keltae and accustomed for the most part to use a barbarous dialect".^[20]

• According to the Vita Sancti Symphoriani, St. Symphorian of Augustodunum (present-day Autun) was executed on 22 August AD 178 for his Christian faith. While he was being led to his execution, "his venerable mother admonished him from the wall assiduously and notable to all (?), saying in the Gaulish speech: Son, son, Symphorianus, think of your God!" (uenerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et nota illum uoce Gallica monuit dicens: 'nate, nate Synforiane, mentobeto to diuo' ^[21]). The Gaulish sentence has been transmitted in a corrupt state in the various manuscripts; as it stands, it has been reconstructed by Thurneysen. According to David Stifter (2012), *mentobeto looks like a Proto-Romance verb derived from Latin mens, mentis ‘mind’ and habere ‘to have’, and it cannot be excluded that the whole utterance is an early variant of Romance, or a mixture of Romance and Gaulish, instead of being an instance of pure Gaulish. On the other hand, nate is attested in Gaulish (for example in Endlicher's Glossary^[22]), and the author of the Vita Sancti Symphoriani, whether or not fluent in Gaulish, evidently expects a non-Latin language to have been spoken at the time.

• The Latin author Aulus Gellius (c. AD 180) mentions Gaulish alongside Etruscan in one anecdote, indicating that (North Italian?) Gaulish is alive at the time of writing.^[23]

• The Roman History by Cassius Dio (written AD 207-229) may imply that Cis- and Transalpine Gauls spoke the same language, as can be deduced from the following passages: (1) Book XIII mentions the principle that named tribes have a common government and a common speech, otherwise the population of a region is summarised by a geographic term, as in the case of the Spanish/Iberians.^[24] (2) In Books XII and XIV, Gauls between the Pyrenees and the River Po are stated to consider themselves kinsmen.^[25][26] (3) In Book XLVI, Cassius Dio explains that the defining difference between Cis- and Transalpine Gauls is the length of hair and the style of clothes (i.e., he does not mention any language difference), the Cisalpine Gauls having adopted shorter hair and the Roman toga at an early date (Gallia Togata).^[27] Potentially in contrast, Caesar described the river Rhone as a frontier between the Celts and provincia nostra.^[28]

• In the Digesta XXXII, 11 of Ulpian (AD 222–228) it is decreed that fideicommissa (testamentary provisions) may also be composed in Gaulish.^[29]

• Writing at some point between c. AD 378 and AD 395, the Latin poet and scholar Decimus Magnus Ausonius, from Burdigala (present-day Bordeaux), characterizes his deceased father Iulius's ability to speak Latin as inpromptus, "halting, not fluent"; in Attic Greek, Iulius felt sufficiently eloquent.^[30] This remark is sometimes taken as an indication that the first language of Iulius Ausonius (c. AD 290-378) was Gaulish,^[31] but may alternatively mean that his first language was Greek. As a physician, he would have cultivated Greek as part of his professional proficiency.

• In the Dialogi de Vita Martini I, 26 by Sulpicius Seuerus (AD 363–425), one of the partners in the dialogue utters the rhetorical commonplace that his deficient Latin might insult the ears of his partners. One of them answers: uel Celtice aut si mauis Gallice loquere dummodo Martinum loquaris ‘speak Celtic or, if you prefer, Gaulish, as long as you speak about Martin’.^[32]

• Saint Jerome (writing in AD386/387) remarked in a commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians that the Belgic Treveri spoke almost the same language as the Galatians, rather than Latin.^[33] This agrees with an earlier report in AD180 by Lucian.^[34]

• In a letter of AD474 to his brother-in-law, Sidonius Apollinaris, bishop of Clermont in the Auvergne, states that in his younger years, "our nobles... resolved to forsake the barbarous Celtic dialect", evidently in favour of eloquent Latin.^[35]

Medieval period

• Cassiodorus (ca. AD490–585) cites in his book Variae VIII, 12, 7 (dated AD 526) from a letter to king Athalaric: Romanum denique eloquium non suis regionibus inuenisti et ibi te Tulliana lectio disertum reddidit, ubi quondam Gallica lingua resonauit ‘Finally you found Roman eloquence in regions that were not originally its own; and there the reading of Cicero rendered you eloquent where once the Gaulish language resounded’^[36]

• In the 6th century Cyril of Scythopolis (AD 525-559) tells a story about a Galatian monk who was possessed by an evil spirit and was unable to speak, but if forced to, could speak only in Galatian.^[37]

• Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century AD that a shrine in the Auvergne "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue",^[38] which could mean that Gaulish was still spoken in the region at the time he was writing (c. AD 560-575). However, his remark may refer to the linguistic origin of the name of the shrine, not necessarily to the survival of the language.

The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been around or shortly after the middle of the first millennium AD.^[39]

Corpus

Summary of sources

According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France – with the notable exception of Aquitaine – and in northern Italy.^[40] Inscriptions include short dedications, funerary monuments, proprietary statements, and expressions of human sentiments, but the Gauls also left some longer documents of a legal or magical-religious nature.^[3] The most famous is the Coligny Calendar, a much mutilated bronze tablet providing the names of Celtic months over a five year span; months of 30 days were marked matus, "lucky", months of 29 days anmatus, "unlucky".

Many inscriptions consist of only a few words (often names) in rote phrases, and many are fragmentary.^[41][42] They provide some evidence for morphology and better evidence for personal and mythological names. Occasionally, marked surface clausal configurations provide some evidence of a more formal, or poetic, register. It is clear from the subject matter of the records that the language was in use at all levels of society.

Other sources also contribute to our knowledge of Gaulish: Greek and Latin authors mention Gaulish words,^[17] personal and tribal names,^[43] and toponyms. A short Gaulish-Latin vocabulary (about 20 entries headed De nominib[us] Gallicis) called "Endlicher’s Glossary", is preserved in a 9th-century manuscript (Öst. Nationalbibliothek, MS 89 fol. 189v).^[22]

Furthermore, the French language offers some Gaulish loanwords. Today, French contains approximately 150 to 180 words known to be of Gaulish origin, most of which concern pastoral or daily activity.^[44][45] If dialectal and derived words are included, the total is approximately 400 words, the largest stock of Celtic words in any Romance language.^[46][47]

Inscriptions

The curse tablet from L'Hospitalet-du-Larzac, Musée de Millau.^[48]

Gaulish inscriptions are edited in the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), in four volumes:

• Vol. 1: Inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, edited by Michel Lejeune (items G-1 –G-281)
• Vol. 2.1: Inscriptions in the Etruscan alphabet (Lepontic, items E-1 – E-6), and inscriptions in the Latin alphabet in stone (items l. 1 – l. 16), edited by Michel Lejeune
• Vol. 2.2: inscriptions in the Latin alphabet on instruments (ceramic, lead, glass etc.), edited by Pierre-Yves Lambert (items l. 18 – l. 139)
• Vol. 3: The calendars of Coligny (73 fragments) and Villards d'Heria (8 fragments), edited by Paul-Marie Duval and Georges Pinault
• Vol. 4: inscriptions on coins, edited by Jean-Baptiste Colbert de Beaulieu and Brigitte Fischer (338 items)

The longest known Gaulish text is the Larzac tablet, found in 1983 in L'Hospitalet-du-Larzac, France. It is inscribed in Latin cursive script on both sides of two small sheets of lead. Probably a curse tablet (defixio), it clearly mentions relationships between female names, for example aia duxtir adiegias [...] adiega matir aiias (Aia, daughter of Adiega ... Adiega, mother of Aia) and seems to contain incantations regarding one Severa Tertionicna and a group of women (often thought to be a rival group of witches), but the exact meaning of the text remains unclear.^[49][50]

Another major text is the Chamalières tablet, written on lead in Latin cursive script, in twelve lines, apparently a curse or incantation addressed to the god Maponos. It was deposited in a spring, as defixiones often are.

The Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, France, with a statue identified as Mars. It is a lunisolar calendar attempting to synchronize the solar year and the lunar month by inserting a 13th month every two-and-a-half years. The calendar contains Gaulish words but Roman numerals, permitting translations such as lat evidently meaning days, and mid month.

The pottery at La Graufesenque^[51] is our most important source for Gaulish numerals. Potters shared furnaces and kept tallies inscribed in Latin cursive on ceramic plates, referring to kiln loads numbered 1 to 10:

• 1st cintus, cintuxos (Welsh cynt "before", cyntaf "first", Breton kent "in front" kentañ "first", Cornish kynsa "first", Old Irish céta, Irish céad "first")
• 2nd allos, alos (W ail, Br eil, OIr aile "other", Ir eile)
• 3rd tri[tios] (W trydydd, Br trede, OIr treide)
• 4th petuar[ios] (W pedwerydd, Br pevare)
• 5th pinpetos (W pumed, Br pempet, OIr cóiced)
• 6th suexos (possibly mistaken for suextos, but see Rezé inscription below; W chweched, Br c'hwec'hved, OIr seissed)
• 7th sextametos (W seithfed, Br seizhved, OIr sechtmad)
• 8th oxtumeto[s] (W wythfed, Br eizhved, OIr ochtmad)
• 9th namet[os] (W nawfed, Br naved, OIr nómad)
• 10th decametos, decometos (CIb dekametam, W degfed, Br degvet, OIr dechmad)

The lead inscription from Rezé (dated to the 2nd century AD, located at the mouth of the river Loire, i.e., 450km northwest of La Graufesenque) is evidently an account or a calculation and contains quite different ordinals:^[52]

• 3rd trilu
• 4th paetrute
• 5th pixte
• 6th suexxe, etc.

Other Gaulish numerals attested in Latin inscriptions include *petrudecametos "fourteenth" (rendered as petrudecameto, with Latinized dative-ablative singular ending) and *triconts "thirty" (rendered as tricontis, with a Latinized ablative plural ending; compare Irish tríocha). A Latinized phrase for a "ten-night festival of (Apollo) Grannus", decamnoctiacis Granni, is mentioned in a Latin inscription from Limoges. A similar formation is to be found in the Gaulish-language Calendar of Coligny, where mention is made of a trinox[...] Samoni "three-night (festival?) of (the month of) Samonios". As is to be expected, the ancient Gaulish language was more similar to Latin than modern Celtic languages are to modern Romance languages. The ordinal numerals in Latin are prīmus / prior, secundus / alter (the first form when more than two objects are counted, the second form only when two, note also that alius, like alter means "the other", the former used when more than two and the latter when only two), tertius, quārtus, quīntus, sextus, septimus, octāvus, nōnus, and decimus.

A number of short inscriptions are found on spindle whorls and are among the most recent finds in the Gaulish language. Spindle whorls were apparently given to girls by their suitors and bear such inscriptions as:

• moni gnatha gabi / buððutton imon (RIG l. 119) "my girl, take my penis(?)^[53]"
• geneta imi / daga uimpi (RIG l. 120) '"I am a young girl, good (and) pretty".

Inscriptions found in Switzerland are rare. The most notable inscription found in Helvetic parts is the Bern zinc tablet, inscribed ΔΟΒΝΟΡΗΔΟ ΓΟΒΑΝΟ ΒΡΕΝΟΔΩΡ ΝΑΝΤΑΡΩΡ (Dobnorēdo gobano brenodōr nantarōr), and apparently dedicated to Gobannus, the Celtic god of smithcraft. Furthermore, there is a statue of a seated goddess with a bear, Artio, found in Muri near Bern, with a Latin inscription DEAE ARTIONI LIVINIA SABILLINA, suggesting a Gaulish Artiū "Bear (goddess)". A number of coins with Gaulish inscriptions in the Greek alphabet have also been found in Switzerland, e.g. RIG IV Nos. 92 (Lingones) and 267 (Leuci). A sword dating to the La Tène period was found in Port near Biel/Bienne, its blade inscribed with KORICIOC (Korisos), probably the name of the smith.

Phonology

• vowels:
  • short: a, e, i, o u
  • long: ā, ē, ī, (ō), ū
  • diphthongs: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

1. [x] is an allophone of /k/ before /t/.

• occlusives:
  • voiceless: p, t, k
  • voiced: b, d, g
• resonants
  • nasals: m, n
  • liquids r, l
• sibilant: s
• affricate: t^s
• semi-vowels: w, y

The diphthongs all transformed over the historical period. Ai and oi changed into long ī; eu merged with ou, both becoming long ō. Ei became long ē early, probably before Gaulish was attested. In general, long diphthongs became short diphthongs and then long vowels. Long vowels shortened before nasals in Auslaut.

Other transformations include: unstressed i became e, ln became ll, a stop + s became ss, and a nasal + velar became /ng/ + velar.

The occlusives also seem to have been both lenis, unlike Latin, which distinguished voiced occlusives with a lenis realization from voiceless occlusives with a fortis realization, hence confusions like Glanum for Clanum, vergobretos for vercobreto, Britannia for Pritannia.^[54]

Orthography

RIG G-172 Gallo-Greek inscription ϹΕΓΟΜΑΡΟϹ ΟΥΙΛΛΟΝΕΟϹ ΤΟΟΥΤΙΟΥϹ ΝΑΜΑΥϹΑΤΙϹ ΕΙωΡΟΥ ΒΗΛΗϹΑΜΙ ϹΟϹΙΝ ΝΕΜΗΤΟΝ (Segomaros Uilloneos toutius Namausatis eiōru Bēlēsami sosin nemēton) "Segomaros, son of Uillū, citizen^[55] (toutious) of Namausos, dedicated this sanctuary to Belesama"

The name ARAÐÐOVNA on a Gaulish tomb, illustrating the use of the tau gallicum (in this case doubled).

Lepontic alphabet

The alphabet of Lugano used in Cisalpine Gaul for Lepontic:

AEIKLMNOPRSTΘUVXZ

The alphabet of Lugano does not distinguish voiced and unvoiced occlusives, i.e. P represents /b/ or /p/, T is for /d/ or /t/, K for /g/ or /k/. Z is probably for /t^s/. U /u/ and V /w/ are distinguished only in one early inscription. Θ is probably for /t/ and X for /g/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).

The Eastern Greek alphabet used in southern Gallia Transalpina:

αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρστυχω

ΑΒΓΔΕΖΗΘΙΚΛΜΝΞΟΠΡΣΤΥΧΩ

Χ is used for [x], θ for /t^s/, ου for /u/, /ū/, /w/, η and ω for both long and short /e/, /ē/ and /o/, /ō/, while ι is for short /i/ and ει for /ī/. Note that the Sigma in the Eastern Greek alphabet looks like a C (lunate sigma). All Greek letters were used except phi and psi.

Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive) in use in Roman Gaul:

ABCDÐEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVXZ

abcdðefghiklmnopqrstuvxz

G and K are sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ð/ð, ds and s may represent /ts/ and/or /dz/. X, x is for [x] or /ks/. Q is only used rarely (e.g. Sequanni, Equos) and may represent an archaism (a retained *k^w) or, as in Latin, an alternate spelling of -cu- (for original /kuu/, /kou/, or /kom-u/).^[56] Ð and ð are used to represent the letter (tau gallicum, the Gaulish dental affricate).

Sound laws

• Gaulish changed the PIE voiceless labiovelar kʷ to p (hence P-Celtic), a development also observed in Brythonic (as well as Greek and some Italic languages like Osco-Umbrian), while the other Celtic, 'Q-Celtic', retained the labiovelar. Thus the Gaulish word for "son" was mapos,^[57] contrasting with Ogamic Irish *maqqos (attested genitive maqqi), which became mac (gen. mic) in modern Irish. In modern Welsh the word map, mab (or its contracted form ap, ab) is found in surnames. Similarly one Gaulish word for "horse" was epos (in Old Breton eb and modern Breton keneb "pregnant mare") while Old Irish has ech, modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic each, Manx egh; all derived from Indo-European *h₁eḱwos.^[58]
• The Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar *gʷ (From PIE *gʷʰ) became w, e. g. *gʷediūmi → uediiumi "I pray" (but Irish guidhim, Welsh gweddi "to pray").
• PIE ds, dz became /tˢ/, spelled đ, e.g. *neds-samo → neđđamon (cf. Irish nesamh "nearest", Welsh nesaf "next").
• PIE eu became ou, and later ō, e.g. *teutā → touta → tōta "tribe" (cf. Irish tuath, Welsh tud "people").
• Additionally, intervocalic /st/ became the affricate [tˢ] (alveolar stop + voiceless alveolar stop) and intervocalic /sr/ became [ðr] and /str/ became [θr]. Finally, when a labial or velar stop came before either a /t/ or /s/ the two sounds merged into the fricative [χ].

Morphology

There was some areal (or genetic, see Italo-Celtic) similarity to Latin grammar, and the French historian Ferdinand Lot argued that this helped the rapid adoption of Vulgar Latin in Roman Gaul.^[59]

Noun cases

Gaulish had six or seven cases.^[60] Like Latin, Gaulish had nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, and dative cases; however, where Latin had an ablative, Gaulish had an instrumental and may also have had a locative case. Greater epigraphical evidence attests common cases (nominative and accusative) and common stems (-o- and -a- stems) than for cases less frequently used in inscriptions, or rarer -i-, -n- and -r- stems. The following table summarizes the best-attested case endings. A blank means that the form is unattested.

In some cases a historical evolution is attested; for example, the dative singular of a-stems is -āi in the oldest inscriptions, becoming first *-ăi and finally -ī as in Irish a-stem nouns with attenuated (slender) consonants: nom. lámh "hand, arm" (cf. Gaul. lāmā) and dat. láimh (< *lāmi; cf. Gaul. lāmāi > *lāmăi > lāmī). Further, the plural instrumental had begun to encroach on the dative plural (dative atrebo and matrebo vs. instrumental gobedbi and suiorebe), and in the modern Insular languages the instrumental form is known to have completely replaced the dative.

For o-stems, Gaulish also innovated the pronominal ending for the nominative plural -oi and genitive singular -ī in place of expected -ōs and -os still present in Celtiberian (-oś, -o). In a-stems, the inherited genitive singular -as is attested but was subsequently replaced by -ias as in Insular Celtic. The expected genitive plural -a-om appears innovated as -anom (vs. Celtiberian -aum).

Verbs

Verbs show a number of innovations as well. The Indo-European s-aorist has evolved into the Gaulish t-preterit which was formed by merging an old 3rd personal singular imperfect ending -t- to a 3rd personal singular perfect ending -u or -e and subsequent affixation to all forms of the t-preterit tense. Similarly, the s-preterit is formed from the extension of -ss (originally from the 3rd person singular) and the affixation of -it to the 3rd person singular (to distinguish it as such). Third personal plurals are also marked by the addition of -s in the preterit system.

Syntax

Word order

The majority of Gaulish sentences seem to consist of subject, then verb, then object, as in:

Subject	Verb	Indirect Object	Direct Object
martialis dannotali	ieuru	ucuete	sosin celicnon
Martialis, son of Dannotalos, dedicated this edifice to Ucuetis

Some, however, have patterns such as the verb first, then subject, then object (as in the normal Welsh sentence), with the verb between subject and object (or object and subject), or with the verb last. The latter can be seen as a survival from an earlier stage in the language, very much like the more archaic Celtiberian language. Sentences with the verb first can be interpreted, however, as indicating a special purpose, such as an imperative, emphasis, contrast, and so on: or the verb may contain or be next to an enclitic pronoun or with "and" or "but", etc. According to J. F. Eska, Gaulish was certainly not a verb-second language, as the following shows:

ratin briuatiom	frontu tarbetisonios	ie(i)uru
NP.Acc.Sg.	NP.Nom.Sg.	V.3rd Sg.
Frontus Tarbetisonios dedicated the board of the bridge.

Whenever there is a pronoun object element, it has to stand next to the verb, as per Vendryes' Restriction. The general Celtic grammar shows Wackernagel's Rule, so putting the verb at the beginning of the clause or sentence. As in Old Irish ^[61] and traditional literary Welsh,^[62] the verb can be preceded by a particle which has no real meaning by itself, but which originally was used to make the utterance easier.

sioxt-i	albanos	panna(s)	extra tuð(on)	CCC
V-Pro.Neut.	NP.Nom.Sg.	NP.Fem.Acc.Pl.	PP	Num.
Albanos added them, vessels beyond the allotment (in the amount of) 300.

to-me-declai	obalda	natina
Conn.-Pro.1st.Sg.Acc.-V.3rd.Sg.	NP.Nom.Sg.	Appositive
Obalda, (their) dear daughter, set me up.

According to Eska's model, Vendryes' Restriction is believed to have played a large rôle in the development of Insular Celtic verb-subject-object word order. Other authorities such as John T. Koch, dispute this interpretation.

Considering that Gaulish is not a verb-final language, it is not surprising to find other "head-initial" features.

• Genitives follow their head nouns:

atom deuogdonion

The border of gods and men.

• The unmarked position for adjectives is after their head nouns:

toutious namausatis

citizen of Nîmes

• Prepositional phrases have the preposition, naturally, first:

in alixie

in Alesia

• Passive clauses:

uatiounui so nemetos commu escengilu

To Vatiounos this shrine (was dedicated) by Commos Escengilos

Subordination

Subordinate clauses follow the main clause and have an uninflected element (jo) to show the subordinate clause. This is attached to the first verb of the subordinate clause.

gobedbi	dugijonti-jo	ucuetin	in alisija
NP.Dat/Inst.Pl.	V.3rd.Pl.- Pcl.	NP.Acc.Sg.	PP
to the smiths who serve Ucuetis in Alisia

Jo is also used in relative clauses and to construct the equivalent of THAT-clauses

scrisu-mi-jo	uelor
V.1st.Sg.-Pro.1st Sg.-Pcl.	V.1st Sg.
I wish that I spit

This element is found residually in the Insular Languages and appears as an independent inflected relative pronoun in Celtiberian, thus:

• Welsh
  • modern sydd "which is" ← Middle Welsh yssyd ← *esti-jo
  • vs. Welsh ys "is" ← *esti

• Irish
  • Old Irish relative cartae "they love" ← *caront-jo

• Celtiberian
  • masc. nom. sing. ioś, masc. dat. sing. iomui, fem. acc. plural iaś

Clitics

Gaulish had object pronouns that infixed inside a word:

to-	so	-ko	-te
Conn.-	Pro.3rd Sg.Acc	- PerfVZ	- V.3rd Sg
he gave it

Disjunctive pronouns also occur as clitics: mi, tu, id. These act like the emphasizing particles known as notae augentes in the Insular Celtic languages.

dessu-	mii	-iis
V.1st.Sg.	Emph.-Pcl.1st Sg.Nom.	Pro.3rd Pl.Acc.
I prepare them

buet-	id
V.3rd Sg.Pres.Subjunc.-	Emph.Pcl.3rd Sg.Nom.Neut.
it should be

Clitic doubling is also found (along with left dislocation) when a noun antecedent referring to an inanimate object is nonetheless grammatically animate. (There is a similar construction in Old Irish.)

Notes

See also

• Languages of France
• List of English words of Gaulish origin
• List of French words of Gaulish origin
• Italo-Celtic

References

• Delamarre, Xavier (2003), Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (2nd ed.), Paris: Editions Errance 
• Delamarre, Xavier (2012), Noms de lieux celtiques de l'Europe Ancienne. -500 +500, Arles: Errance 
• Eska, Joseph F. (2004), "Celtic Languages", in Woodard, Roger D., Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 857–880 
• Eska, Joseph F. (2008a), "Continental Celtic", in Woodard, Roger D., The Ancient Languages of Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 165–188 
• Eska, Joseph F, "The linguistic position of Lepontic", Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 24 (2): 2–11 
• Eska, Joseph F. (2010), "The emergence of the Celtic languages", in Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole, The Celtic Languages (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 22–27 
• Eska, Joseph F. (2012), "Lepontic", in Koch; Minard, Antoine, The Celts: History, Life, and Culture, Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, p. 534 
• Eska, Joseph F.; Evans, D. Ellis (2010), "Continental Celtic", in Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole, The Celtic Languages (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 28–54 
• Dottin, Georges (1920), La langue gauloise: grammaire, textes et glossaire, Paris: C. Klincksieck 
• Forster, Peter; Toth, Alfred (2003), "Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 100 (15): 9079–9084,  
• Koch, John T. (2005), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO,  .
• Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003), La langue gauloise (2nd ed.), Paris: Errance 
• Lejeune, Michel (1971), Lepontica, Paris: Belles Lettres 
• Meid, Wolfgang (1994), Gaulish Inscriptions, Archaeolingua 
• Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (XLVe supplément à «GALLIA»). ed. Paul-Marie Duval et al. 4 vols. Paris: CNRS, 1985-2002. ISBN 2-271-05844-9
• Russell, Paul (1995), An Introduction to the Celtic Languages, London: Longman 
• Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004), Dictionnaire français-gaulois, Paris: Éditions de la Différence 
• Savignac, Jean-Paul (1994), Les Gaulois, leurs écrits retrouvés: "Merde à César", Paris: Éditions de la Différence 
• Sims-Williams, Patrick (2007), "Common Celtic, Gallo-Brittonic and Insular Celtic", in Lambert, Pierre-Yves; Pinault, Jean, Gaulois et celtique continental, Genève: Librairie Droz, pp. 309–354 
• Solinas, Patrizia (1995), "Il celtico in Italia", Studi Etruschi 60: 311–408 =
• Stifter, David (2012), Old Celtic Languages (lecture notes), University of Kopenhagen 
• Watkins, Calvert (1999), "A Celtic miscellany", in K. Jones-Blei et al., Proceedings of the Tenth Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, Los Angeles 1998, Washington: Institute for the Study of Man, pp. 3–25